LCN2 and acute kidney injury: As a proof of concept, the current study suggests that YKL-40 can be non-invasively measured in urine at the first clinical sign of AKI in general hospitalized patients (e.g., a rise in SCr or drop in urine output) and the results used in combination with other biomarkers (e.g., NGAL levels to quantitate distal nephron damage) in order to assess renal injury-repair processes in real-time and potentially improve outcome prediction.