The expression of IEX-1 was analyzed using immunostaining in venous samples removed from patients with AVFs due to infection, thrombosis, or stenosis (n = 3, 2 M, average age  = 58.7±10.6 years old) and compared to control veins removed from patients (n = 3, 2 M, average age  = 60±2.6 years old) undergoing placement of AVF (Fig. 1a). Here, IER3 is linked to infection.