TNF and Sepsis: Previous studies demonstrated (3,4) that during sepsis, repeated stimulation of the kidneys led to the production of a large number of pro-inflammatory cytokines [including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6 and nuclear factor κ-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB)], followed by the rapid release of large amounts of anti-inflammatory cytokines [including IL-10 and transforming growth factor β (TGF-β)].