The retention of VDR in tumors may indicate that its function has been somehow abrogated, either by altered function of the VDR despite mutation (i.e., alteration of transcriptional co-regulators), reduced ligand availability (i.e., loss of CYP27B1 and/or gain of CYP24A1), or mutation/deregulation of critical anti-cancer VDR target genes. Here, CYP24A1 is linked to cancer.