TNF and epilepsy: In particular, high levels of proinflammatory cytokines [e.g., interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα)], damage signals [high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), S100 beta] and downstream inflammatory mediators (e.g., prostaglandins, the complement system) have been measured in epileptogenic tissue from patients affected by epilepsy of various etiologies (Aronica and Crino, 2011; Vezzani et al., 2011).