TNF and infection: Early type-1 responses, dominated by IFN-γ, IL-2 and TNF, have been reportedly associated with inhibition of liver stage development [26-31], resolution of acute malaria parasitaemias [32-34] and delay of re-infection [35], as confirmed by the absolute requirement of IFN-γ in the effector mechanism of sporozoite-induced protective immunity [35-38].