TLR4 and inflammatory bowel disease: In in vitro experiments utilizing cultured human enterocytes and colonocytes, CCL-241 and CCL-248, respectively, we recreated an aspect of IBD pathophysiology involving the proinflammatory action of IL-1β, IFNγ, and Toll-like receptor 4- (TLR4-) and TLR9-ligands (i.e., LPS-EK and E. coli DNA, resp).