In males, the COPD related signature included ontologies related to the immune system (up-regulated) and cellular locomotion (up-regulated), whereas only a few number of genes (which limited ontology enrichment analysis) were associated with Smoking. By contrast, in females the Smoking signature included ontologies that were similar (but of opposite direction) to those identified as COPD related in males, and that their COPD related signature included down-regulation of the MLL5, FOS and JUN genes, all of them involved in the inflammatory response. Here, FOS is linked to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.