TNF and Parkinson disease: Elevated proinflammatory substances such as cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2) and cytokines including interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) are also found in postmortem PD brains [4–7], suggesting the presence of inflammatory processes [8].