CD4 and coinfection: Studies of human disease have characterized functional defects in CD4 T cells in TB-HIV co-infection by the analysis of cytokine production (e.g., IFN-γ) by CD4 cells in response to Mtb Ags (139–142) and by the analysis of phenotype distribution of CD4 T cells in lymphoid tissue, peripheral blood, and at the sites of disease (139, 143, 144).