Administration of these candidate autoantigens has so far failed to prevent or reverse T1D in humans (Peakman and von Herrath, 2010; Coppieters et al., 2013), although modest improvement in insulin C-peptide levels was observed following administration of a proinsulin-encoding plasmid in T1D (Roep et al., 2013). Here, INS is linked to type 1 diabetes mellitus.