INS and neuropathy: Given the typical fluctuations in insulin levels, and because the hormone is particularly relevant to this review (i.e., diabetic neuropathy is the leading cause of neuropathy), it is worth noting both that insulin uses the Akt/protein kinase B pathway to phosphorylate GSK-3 (Cross et al., 1995) and that insulin’s effect on GSK-3 is altered by angiotensin II (Diamond-Stanic and Henriksen, 2010) and α1A (Bailou et al., 2001) stimulation.