VCAM1 and atherosclerosis: This study builds upon previous research by investigating three potential pathways (oxidative stress, impaired endothelial function, and metal processing dysfunction) that may modify the association between air pollution and the outcomes fibrinogen, C-reactive protein, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), which have been related to coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis [20], [21].