CD38 and infection: Median frequencies of HLA-DR+CD38+ CD4 T cells were significantly elevated in subjects infected with AL (1.3-fold, 2.92%, p = 0.002) and SM (1.2-fold (2.57%, p = 0.025), but not TT infections (1.3-fold, 2.52%, p = 0.095) when compared to non-infected individuals (2.16%, figure 2B left panel).