To test if IL-10-producing B cells were also elevated in gut in HIV-1 infection, we detected IL-10-producing B cells in biopsies of sigmoid colon of untreated HIV-1 infected individuals and found that the frequencies of IL-10-producing B cell were also elevated in sigmoid colon of untreated HIV-1 infected individuals at both early and chronic stages, compared to healthy donors (Figure 7B). Here, IL10 is linked to HIV-1 infection.