TLR4 and inflammatory bowel disease: Taken together with previously reported findings of upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine gene expression in experimentally infected rats [43]; and increased IL-8 production from human colonic epithelial cells [26], chronic inflammation commonly associated with IBS and IBD may be a result of complex interactions involving LPS and parasite components, activating TLR-4 and other receptors in a concomitant manner.