Among the genes that were induced in all subjects except for patients with asthma were interferon involved genes (IL28B, IFNAR1), CCL22, and FOSL1 with respect to the upper airways, and several interferon involved genes (IRF3, IFNAR1, IFNB1, IFNGR1, IL28B) in the lower airways. Here, IFNGR1 is linked to asthma.