PTGS2 and colitis: Dietary astaxanthin suppressed colitis and colitis-related colon carcinogenesis, partly through inhibition of NF-κB, and downregulation of the messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression of inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL)-6, and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 [61].