The effects of MGO observed in this study are likely to be most relevant in situations where large fluctuations in blood glucose levels occur, such as in people with uncontrolled diabetes or ketosis, since chronic hyperglycaemia and reactive aldehyde exposure are known to cause compensatory increases in both the protein level, and activities, of enzymes including glyoxalase I, aldose reductase, peroxiredoxins 1 and 3, glutathione peroxidase 1, and superoxide dismutase-1 [42], [43]. This evidence concerns the gene AKR1B1 and diabetes mellitus.