Evidence of inflammation during disease in humans is illustrated by increased levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokines Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α) and Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in the stool of V. parahaemolyticus–infected patients and by histological visualization of inflammation in intestinal biopsies collected during the acute stage of infection when symptoms, such as diarrhea, are most evident (Qadri et al., 2003). Here, TNF is linked to infection.