TNF and malaria: In our cohort, a greater frequency of malaria-specific CD4+ T cells producing TNFα alone (IFNγ−/IL-10−/TNFα+) was associated with a significantly reduced hazard of developing malaria (HR 0.31, P = 0.015 per 10 fold increase) and lower prospective incidence (IRR 0.44, P = 0.004 per 10 fold increase) in univariate analysis, but in multivariate models controlling for duration since malaria and/or cumulative prior malaria episodes, these associations were no longer significant (Table 2).