TNF and metabolic syndrome: For instance, TNF-α induces not only neutrophil proliferation but also apoptosis upon binding to the TNF-R55 receptor.51 Previous studies have shown that TNF-α is involved in the modulation of many lipid metabolism-related genes.52 It has been also shown that the early stage of the metabolic syndrome is marked by a higher level of TNF-α, which is correlated with changes in lipid metabolism and insulin concentrations.53 Changes in the level of MCP-1 have been also reported to lead to alterations in lipid metabolism.