TNF and Alzheimer disease: Further studies on the neuroinflammatory profile in AD also revealed abnormal upregulation of various cytokines and chemokines including TNF, IL-1, IL-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), nitric oxide (NO), and transforming growth factor β (TGFβ), which exert proinflammatory effects in AD brain [54–57].