Previous studies have shown that MSRV particles exert potent pro-inflammatory effects in vitro, in human PBMC and DC (Rolland et al., 2006) as well as in vivo, in humanized SCID mouse model grafted with human lymphoid cells, in which injected MSRV virions caused an overexpression of TNF-α leading to death by brain haemorrhages [30], [33]. Here, TNF is linked to intracranial hemorrhage.