Cross-sectional associations between GDF-15 levels and previous or current occurrence of obesity, smoking, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease (CVD), coronary heart disease (CHD), stroke, cancer or prostate cancer in the whole sample (n = 940), with unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios (OR) with 95 % CI and p values for 1 SD increase of log GDF-15 for these dichotomous risk factors and co-morbidities. This evidence concerns the gene GDF15 and obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency.