TNF and aortic stenosis: TNF-α increases the gene expression of the osteogenic makers ALP and BMP-2 and induces calcification of VICs obtained from the patients with AS [50]; TNF-α-induced calcification, ALP activation, and NF-κB and BMP-2 gene expression are inhibited in the presence of inhibitors of NF-κB signalling, showing that TNF-α activates the NF-κB signalling pathway and translocates NF-κB p65 subunit into the nucleus for upregulation of the BMP-2 and NF-κB genes [50].