Pharmacological activation of host HIF-1α in infected MPCCs by CoCl2 and DMOG increased EEF survival (Fig. 5B,D), but did not increase the EEF size distributions (Fig. 5C,E), suggesting that the effects of ambient hypoxia on liver-stage malaria EEF numbers and EEF sizes are driven by distinct mechanisms, with host HIF-1α playing a role in maintaining the survival of EEFs but not necessarily driving EEF growth. This evidence concerns the gene HIF1A and malaria.