ACE and atrial fibrillation: The primary goals of the pharmacological management of AF are fourfold: (1) Symptom relief (i.e., rate or rhythm control strategies), (2) Control of risk factors that promote and facilitate AF (i.e., upstream therapy, ACE inhibitors, aldosterone receptor blockers, statins, etc.), (3) Stroke and systemic embolism prevention, and (4) Reduction in mortality and morbidity associated with AF.