CSF2 and cancer: There are two main currents for a new paradigm in immunotherapy for UC: (1) enhancement of BCG nonspecific immunotherapy with an adjuvant immunomodulator, e.g., interferon (IFN), granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) or specific vaccination for patients with NMIBC, and (2) cancer-specific activation of T cells for patients with muscle-invasive or metastatic UC, e.g., peptide vaccination and dendritic vaccination.