This idea is supported by Goven et al. (2010), who investigated the association of primary spontaneous pneumothorax and oxidative stress in lung macrophages, and demonstrated that the induction of the antioxidant proteins was a consequence of the nuclear localization of the hypoxia inducible factor 1a (HIF-1a), but not of Nrf2. Here, HIF1A is linked to pneumothorax.