PPARA and atrial fibrillation: For the PPAR signaling pathway, [21] and [22] illustrated that the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are lipid-activated transcription factors that regulate lipid and lipoprotein metabolism, glucose homeostasis, inflammation and cardiovascular system; The PPARs are a family of three nuclear hormone receptors, PPARα, -β/δ, and –γ, in which the PPARγ activator pioglitazone can attenuate congestive heart failure-induced atrial structural remodeling and AF promotion, with effects similar to those of candesartan [15].