TNF and infection: However, standard treatments such as steroids, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and disease-modifying drugs have severe side effects (ulcers, bleeding, myocardial infarction, stroke, infections) (Trelle et al., 2011) and biological anti-inflammatory treatments such as inhibitors of tumor necrosis factor-α or of Janus kinases can only be used in a limited number of patients due to their prohibitive cost, parenteral formulation and risk for infection and tumor induction.