TNF and autism spectrum disorder: Immune abnormalities in autism spectrum disorders have been characterized in a number of studies, including evidence of increased microglia and astroglia activation in the brain, as well as increased levels of interferon (IFN)γ, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-12, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and macrophage chemotactic protein (MCP)-1 in brain tissue and cerebral spinal fluid (Vargas et al., 2005; Li et al., 2009; Morgan et al., 2010).