ADIPOQ and ischemia: In the context of the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease, S1P has been shown to have pro-survival (anti-apoptotic) [26] and anti-inflammatory actions on hepatocytes [27], kidney podocytes [28], protective actions on the cardiovascular system [29], including improvements in blood flow recovery following ischemia [30], and has been implicated in the metabolically protective actions of adiponectin [31].