Second, the reduction of ceramide levels by an nSMase2 inhibitor could attenuate mRNA levels of proinflammatory cytokines in the hippocampus following ischemia, suggesting that ceramide signals are closely associated with neuroinflammation in the rat hippocampi in response to forebrain ischemia, which is similar to findings in previous reports [44,54-57]. This evidence concerns the gene SMPD3 and ischemia.