Kaler and Schwartz (1998) later confirmed the expression of mouse and rat Atp7a in astrocytes from various brain regions (cerebral cortex, corpus striatum, and cerebellum). Therefore, ATP7A is postulated to play a key role in the copper distribution from astrocytes to neurons. Importantly, the successful treatment of MD mouse models by intravenous administration of copper earlier than postnatal day 7 (P7; Mann et al., 1979) was proposed to be a consequence of the immaturity of the BBB, which includes astrocytes (Kodama et al., 1991). The gene discussed is ATP7A; the disease is Menkes disease.