MAPK9 and age-related macular degeneration: Specifically, in vivo models of pathologic retinal angiogenesis [23] and age-related macular degeneration [17] have demonstrated that inhibition of c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 (JNK1), a SAPK, reduces: 1) retinal capillary dropout and neovascular tufting in response to oxidative stress [14]; and 2) apoptosis, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF, a key molecule driving retinal angiogenesis) expression, and choroidal neovascularization in response to laser-induced retinal damage.