In our study copious in situ TNF-α production was temporally associated with ISG expression in lymph nodes, and other cytokines including TGF-β, IL-1β and IL-15 that are increased in lymph nodes in acute SIV and HIV infection may also play a role either directly or indirectly in immune activation and disease progression [57]–[59]. This evidence concerns the gene TGFB1 and HIV infectious disease.