Our data offer several important implications in understanding the immune response during EV71–mediated HFMD, as follows: (a) GM-CSF, IL-2, and MIP-1β were significantly enhanced in the plasma from very severe and severe patients presenting with neurological damage as compared to mild patients and age-matched healthy controls (Figure 2B), suggesting that these factors may potentially predict damage to the nervous system induced by EV71 infection. Here, CSF2 is linked to hand, foot and mouth disease.