TNF and endothelial dysfunction: TNF-α and NF-κB are interrelated in that translocation of NF-κB into the nucleus has been proposed to be pro-inflammatory and, either directly or indirectly, leads to a significant increase in TNF-α production while TNF-α activates NF-κB, which then regulates genes involved in inflammation, oxidative stress, and endothelial dysfunction [49, 50].