TNF and pulmonary emphysema: Only TNF-α and IL-1 receptor knockouts (Churg et al., 2009b) as well as mice treated with an MMP-9/MMP-12 inhibitor (Churg et al., 2007a) were protected against the development of both emphysema and SAR when exposed to cigarette smoke, while other interventions such as chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) (Bracke et al., 2007) and CCR6 (Bracke et al., 2006) knockouts are merely protected from emphysema following cigarette smoke.