The suite of cytokines and chemokines assessed here, namely, TNF-α, IL-6, CCL2, CCL3, CXCL2 and IL-1β, are known to promote the inflammation caused by influenza at early stages of the infection phase, i.e. during the cytokine storm, and have been shown to underpin the pathology and morbidity [10], [11]. Here, TNF is linked to infection.