HMGB1 and infection: Exposure to PbA-PEs resulted in incremental elevation in circulating extracellular plasma HMGB1 levels (expressed as fold change compared to baseline) (Figure 2C), with significant elevation by d5 post-infection compared to respective basal levels (p < 0.05), Figure 2A to C), demonstrating HMGB1 release in response to malaria infection, similar to observations in human clinical malaria and cultured PBMCs exposed to P. falciparum-PEs (Figure 1A, B, D and E).