TNF and bacterial infectious disease: The presence of LPS, resulting from, for example, the mucosal barrier of the GALT being compromised or concomitant bacterial infections [14], [50], can also potentiate HIV-induced immunosuppression through augmentation of HIV-1 gene expression at least in part by stimulating the secretion of TNF-α and IL-1β [60]; high levels of circulating TNF-α can also be detected in HIV-infected individuals [61].