ATG16L1 and Cowden disease: Interestingly, a recent study in CD patients demonstrated that autophagy limits the replication of intracellular adherent-invasive Escherichia coli (AIEC) associated with ileal CD and that IRGM- and ATG16L1-deficient cells had enhanced intracellular AIEC bacteria replication, suggesting a significant impact on the outcome of intestinal inflammation [24].