TNF and pneumonitis: As shown in Figure 1, ssRNA stimulation of human leukocytes induced cytokines/chemokines similar to those observed in murine SARS-CoV pneumonitis including IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF, CXCL8 (IL-8), CCL2 (MCP-1), CCL3 (MIP-1α), and CCL4 (MIP-1β).