IRS1 and Stroke: Our preliminary in vitro studies have shown that citicoline also protects human brain microvascular endothelial cells (hCMEC/D3) against apoptosis and excitotoxic damage, strongly induces angiogenesis and significantly increases vascularisation in stroke affected regions of rats following MCAO through a signalling pathway involving activation of the insulin-receptor-substrate-1 (IRS-1), suggesting a novel protective mechanism of action and potential clinical application for improvement of tissue reperfusion and neuronal survival after ischaemic stroke.