TNF and malaria: PRRs related to malaria are the membrane bound Toll-like receptors (TLRs), the cytosolic receptors (such as NALP3, inflammasomes), and soluble receptors such as MBL.31–34 For example, GPI released by IRBC at shizonts rupture stimulates the production of pro-infiammatory TNF-α by macrophages via the recognition of TLR2 and partly of TLR4 in a MyD88 dependent way.31