Independently of their smoking status (current vs. former), CD44 expression was lower in patients with COPD than in smokers and ex-smokers with normal spirometry and non-smokers (p<0.0001); by contrast, macrophage immunostaining of CD36, VEGF and TGFβ was similar in all groups (Figure2). This evidence concerns the gene TGFB1 and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.