TNF and acute respiratory distress syndrome: In the context of ALI, CCL2 as well as other proinflammatory chemokines such as CCL3 (MIP-1alpha), CCL4 (MIP-1beta), CXCL9 (MIG), and CXCL10 (IP-10) are secreted in response to TNF-alpha, IL-1alpha, IL-1beta, LPS, and reactive oxygen species stimuli originating from damaged hepatocytes, KCs, intestinal bacteria, and other sources (Czaja et al., 1994; Heymann et al., 2009).